Discourse

Definition: pragmatics — the study of [elements of] the relation between language and context-of-use. [JM]

Pragmatics is interested predominantly in utterances, made up of sentences, and usually in the context of conversations.

A distinction is made in pragmatics between sentence meaning and speaker meaning. Sentence meaning is the literal meaning of the sentence, while the speaker meaning is the concept that the speaker is trying to convey.

The ability to understand another speaker's intended meaning is called pragmatic competence. [Wikipedia]

Related terms:

monologue — from speaker to hearer [more at Wikipedia]
dialogue — between speakers [more at Wikipedia]

Reference Resolution

Since discourse analysis considers multiple sentences and their interrelated meanings, its interpretative mechanisms must provide features to extract these interrelationships. [This is true even with single sentences and smaller units.]

Example: 18.1 [JM] John went to Bill's car dealership to check out an Acura Integra. He looked at it for about an hour.

Relevant terms:

referent — the entity for which a symbol stands
Note that the referent is extrinsic to the sentence. Thus, John the person is the referent in example 18.1.

referring expression — the symbol that references the referent
John and he are the referring expressions — referring to John the person, the referent — in example 18.1.

coreference — when two symbols reference the same referent
John and he are coreferent (adjective).

antecedent — symbol referred to by a later reference
[note that this is sometimes called the referent]

anaphora — "reference" to a previously introduced symbol
[more correctly, an anaphor takes its reference from a preceding word or phrase]

Airplane!
Rumack: You'd better tell the Captain we've got to land as soon as we can.
This woman has to be gotten to a hospital.

Elaine Dickinson: A hospital? What is it?

Rumack: It's a big building with patients, but that's not important right now.

cataphora — "reference" to a symbol yet to be introduced

discourse context — the context in which discourse takes place
This includes the truth and falsehood of statements within the discourse, as well as their intended meaning within that context.

The statement: S: "The pitcher gave up seven runs and still won the game." could be evaluated in many different ways within a particular sequence of statements.

1. S could be true and the speaker intended to show how lucky the team was.
2. S could be false but the speaker thought it true and intended to show how lucky the team was.
3. The speaker intended to demonstrate how unstoppable the team was.

situational context — the context surrounding the events involved in the discourse.
Note that a discourse has a situational context which, along with inherent semantics, defines its discourse context.

discourse model — a model of the entities and relationships contained in, and modified by, the discourse.

The model might contain [KE]

• linguistic objects
• discourse objects
• dialogue objects
• global focus space

indefinite reference — reference to an entity bound within the dialogue context.
Example: 18.5 [JM] I saw an Acura Integra today.
(an Acura Integra is an indefinite noun phrase.)

definite reference — reference to an entity newly introduced into the dialogue.
Example: 18.9 [JM] I saw an Acura Integra today. The Integra was white ...
(The Integra is a definite noun phrase.)

"Definite noun phrase reference requires that an entity be accessed from either the discourse model or the hearer's set of beliefs about the world."

Example: 18.10 [JM] The Indianapolis 500 is the most popular car race in the U.S.
Example: 18.11 [JM] The fastest car in the Indianapolis 500 was an Integra.

pronominalization — use of pronouns.
Pronominalization creates definite references:
I saw an Acura Integra today. It was white ...

"The constraints on using pronominal reference are stronger than for full definite noun phrases, requiring that the referent have a high degree of activation or salience in the discourse model. Pronouns usually (but not always) refer to entities that were introduced no further than one or two sentences back in the ongoing discourse, whereas definite noun phrases can often refer further back."

Example: 18.13 [JM]
a. John went to Bob's party, and parked next to a beautiful Acura Integra.
b. He went inside and talked to Bob for more than an hour.
c. Bob told him that he recently got engaged.
d. He also said that he bought it yesterday.
d.' He also said that he bought the Acura yesterday.

Example of pronoun use in cataphora:

Example: 18.14 [JM] Before he bought it, John checked over the Integra very carefully.

Example of pronoun use in quantified context, in which the pronoun is considered to be bound:

Example: 18.15 [JM] Every woman bought her Acura at the local dealership.

Demonstratives

Demonstrative pronouns like this and that can appear alone or as determiners. [How do the words this and that differ in use? To show spatial proximity; to show temporal proximity; in deference to other metaphorical concepts within the discourse model.]

One Anaphora — anaphoric use of the word one.

Examples and non-examples [JM] :
18.18 I saw no less than 6 Acura Integra today. Now I want one.
18.19 *One* shouldn't pay more than twenty thousand dollars for an Acura.
18.20 John has two Acuras, but I only have *one*.

Inferrable — reference to an entity (the referent) which has not been explicitly evoked in the text but instead is inferentially related to an evoked entity.[JM]

Example: 18.21 I almost bought an Acura Integra today, but a door had a dent and the engine seemed noisy.

Further clarification of the concept [JM]:

Example: 18.22 Mix the flour, butter, and water.
a. Kneed [sic] the dough until smooth and shiny.
b. Spread the paste over the blueberries.
c. Stir the batter until all lumps are gone.

Discontinuous sets — discontinuous phrases which map to a referencing expression.

Compare

Example: 18.23 John and Mary loved their Acuras. They drive them all the time.

Example: 18.24 John has an Acura, and Mary has a Mazda. They drive them all the time.

Note that 18.24 will normally receive what is called a pairwise or respectively reading.

Generic reference — extrapolation of a referring phrase to the class of the referent, rather than the referent itself.

Example: 18.25 I saw no less than 6 Acura Integras today. They are the coolest cars.